Pancit ng taga Malabon Online Ordering, Sales and Inventory Management System Essay

I. Company Background Pancit ng Taga Malabon is a family-owned fast food chain managed by the nine grandchildren of Emilia Buntan. Presently, it operates 34 branches nationwide. . The company duly registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission on May 30, 1988 with registration number 151743. The main branch of Pancit ng taga Malabon is located in Shopwise Araneta Center Cubao, Quezon City. It was conceptualized seeing that people have grown to love the so-called â€Å"pancit bame† now commonly known as pancit malabon. The â€Å"NG TAGA† at the middle of its name signifies that we offer fresh, clean, safe and affordable food. Filipinos being influenced by Chinese tradition have made it a part of their tradition to eat long noodles during celebration symbolizing long life and good fortune. Nowadays, pancit malabon is not only a food during gathering but part of merienda choices. Filipinos being close knit, loved to eat with families and most of them love to take home different food for the family to share with. With the changing lifestyle of the new era, where people are so busy and wanted to eat fast yet convenient, we have reinvented ourselves and came up with a new concept. Thus, we opened kiosks and stalls where we offer not only our pancit malabon but also other products fast, easy yet affordable. It was established since 1965 as a renowned Filipino fast food chain serving food with their unique and exceptional taste of their delicious pancit and other related products.Their pride lies predominantly on the most celebrated and lavish Pancit Malabon in Bilao. Today, the company is not only selling pancit but they also offer an array of sumptuous food packages like the Fiesta Meals and Binalot Festival. They also expand their branches in order to fully systematize and established a stronger footing. II. Problem Definition Now a days, computerized system is most commonly used in business and apparently it has a big contribution in our society. In order to know the  problems encountered by the staff, we conducted an interview and the following problems they present are: lack of technology in processing their usual transactions, no back-up of records, manual recordings of their inventory, tracking of records is time consuming; in addition to, slow processing of transaction due to manual processing that affects the customer service they are offering and errors in making an inventory report. . III. Solution to the Problem Upon analyzing the problem we’ve been gathered, the proponents came up with a solution to the problem of the company which is thru the use of computerized system that will help the company to eliminate slow processing of orders and automatically generate receipts and reports needed by the management. It will also maximize their time and avoid loss of data. The system will also promote backup and recovery of files for business information security purposes. The system will serve as the permanent storage of data of the supplies in the inventory for it will monitor the critical level of each supply and also the quantity of supplies used in each product that have been produced.

Introduction to Eavan Boland

Boland is introduced to us as one of the most important poets in modern Irish literature. She is commended for her interest in feminist issues throughout her work, in particular the role of women society. In her poetry she expresses a more accurate view on the contributions and achievements of women in Irish history. Boland's early poems were about domestic issues such as marriage and children. Boland also showed an interest in the role of women in Irish literature and society. In â€Å"Child of our time† Boland introduces us to the theme of motherhood and dealing with the evil of war. The features of the this poem are important to interpreting what Boland is saying, she uses end-rhyme. The tone of Bolands poetry must also be considered, the overall the tone is shocked, but that it is up to us to do something about it. There is a sense of deep hurt conveyed in the last line of the second stanza, ‘you dead’. The first stanza has a sad, regretful tone while there is anger in the use of the word‘murder’. The images of caring for a child in the second stanza are conveyed in a tone of tenderness. The background to the poem is that it was written in response to the death of a child killed in a Dublin bombing in May ’74. Boland may also have been prompted by a newspaper photograph showing a fireman tenderly lifting a dead child from the debris â€Å"Sleep in a world your final sleep has woken. † This is the final line of the poem and it is one of hope and prayer. The initial image here is of the child waking up in a world where it will sleep peacefully and undisturbed, possibly heaven? As a poet she touches issues of concern and hopes that she can make a difference she cleverly points out that it is the adult’s job to teach the child, but in fact it is the child that has taught the adults a lesson. We see a how Boland continues with the theme of war and violence â€Å"The war horse†, this poem was written in the early 70's during the violence in northern Ireland. The context of this poem lies in the title. the war horse is a powerful horse ridden in war by a knight. In the poem the war horse is a large beast that has strayed from the traveller site. At first you may think that the poem is filled with bloody battles but the first two couplets eliminate the likelihood of this. She is comparing the horse to violence in Northern Ireland. The horse intruding into the suburb she lives in, ‘like a rumor of war, huge, ‘Threatening’ is like the intrusion of violence into Northern, and to a greater extent, Irish life. Boland even uses such words as ‘a maimed limb’ as comparisons to gardens uprooted to make the comparison more concrete. â€Å"I lift the window† As the poem continues Boland describes how she is left to observe the damage, â€Å"Only a rose which now will never climb.. only a crocus its bulbous head† The rose and crocus have both been destroyed, but the rose is ‘expendable’ life will continue with or without it. We are able see what message Boland is trying to convey as she mentions the ‘Line of defence’ and the ‘volunteer’ that symbolise the rose and crocus. She is aware of having escaped violence and that she is now safe but she also knows that war involves ‘fierce commitment’. She speaks of a fear of commitment – a fear of the threat of war. Boland is making us ask the hard questions here, why should we care? Based on the above text it is clear to see how Boland is a valuable poet to Irish literature, she discusses relevant issues of the time and feels the need for change. Boland's poetry is its link to her life. This including of a personal perspective in her poetry allows us to use her biographical details to understand and view the poem. In my own opinion that her views on life, war and death are relative to all eras, even though the poems are about the troubles the situations can be compared to war world wide whether its world war one, or the war in Iraq, everybody can learn from Bolands poetry. For these reasons I introduce you to the poetry of Eavan Boland.

Personal Goals Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Goals - Personal Statement Example of work, I need to be able to understand people and their diseases and the best background to this information is having knowledge of their surroundings. This Master’s degree is my ticket to be able to interact more with people in the health care field and connect with them on a different level by first understanding where they come from, the pressures they face and in the end find effective short and long term solutions. The program will put me in a leadership position as well and especially with both theoretical and practical aspect by understanding health care administrations. The knowledge will give me the insight knowledge into the health care field from a leadership position. This information and knowledge I hope will put me in a position of connecting with not only the patients but the employees and my colleagues on a deeper level as I will be able to relate with them. All of this matters because it has always been my dream to be people’s person and in an administrative position for that matter but still hold the element of care and concern. I have always wanted to help people without any prejudice and the health field was the best opportunity. Having to fulfil this dream by gaining a Master’s degree where there are chances that I can be an administrator will be one of my greatest life’s achievements. I will be able to help the patients through good interaction, communication and motivation of the health care staff being an administrator. When the needs of the employees are taken care of, then they can in turn assist the patients and a large number of them without any worries or reservations (Martin, Charlesworth and Henderson, 2010). The Master’s programs will also enable me understand the existing health care policies and why they were formulated and to what extent they are helping or not helping the people and especially the target audience. I will not only be able to understand these policies but also be able to change them or at least be

Understanding and carrying out health related behavior change Essay

Understanding and carrying out health related behavior change - Essay Example Data was collected through questionnaires and interviews. It is more accurate and private and the need to get quality feedback was the main reason for use of this method. The risks involved in this type of data analysis include the language barriers, as the natives were the target group. Financial problems and loss of contact between one group and another in form of communication were also reported. Use of different age and different ethnic groups together with relatives helped in reducing researcher bias. The data method was appropriate with the type of research conducted for this findings. The author identifies some difficulties encountered in the process of research such as language barrier and high cost condition to conduct the research. Data management practices included correlation and comparison with other journals from the internet and other sources. The findings did not address the whole purpose of the study since the study was restricted only the data was partially analyzed. Interpretations did not reflect the true findings even though reported change on healthy lifestyles was reported. Some of the variations were explained as the difference between men and women in Muslim religion and cultural beliefs on some types of food consumed. The findings came up with the information on beliefs and cultures on some food influence healthy development while the religion factor, e specially on women, also is different with other journals of research.

Early childhood education- case analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Early childhood education- case analysis - Essay Example This paper makes a conclusion that teachers develop a curriculum from observing the children and noting down their developmental skills, interests and other possibilities they can discover on their own within the parameters of safety. This curriculum envisions implementation in an environment organized by teachers to be rich in possibilities and provocations that challenge children to explore, problem-solve, usually in small groups while the teachers act as keen observers or recorders of the children’s learning. Teachers get to balance their role by sometimes joining the circle of children and sometimes objectively remaining outside the loop. In doing so, children are allowed feelings of success as they manage to be architects of their own learning. This exercise of analyzing the case helps teachers be more aware of the learning that goes on during play, link it to theory, and guide these children to pursue their interests in a safe and conducive environment. This paper talks that children had the freedom to communicate with whoever they wanted in the environment. Children relate to others on their own. Imogen felt the need to share the information she learned from her exploration with her friends. The learning environment provided the children with opportunities to explore and to learn for themselves. Learning ensues in a conducive environment that offers interactions with peers and supportive adults. Piaget contends that children learn a lot from interactions with the environment, at the same time, Vygotsky theorizes that children learn through conversations and involvement with peers and adults. ... dges (2008) explains that the play-based curriculum of Te Whaariki provides children with several opportunities to express, represent, explore and extend their numerous interests (Strands 4 and 5, all goals). She offers that a socio-cultural approach can bring out children from the comforts of their own culture; hence, the quality of teaching relationships should encourage and extend such interests of the children to venture into the real world. Allowing Imogen to pursue her interest in caterpillars and equipping her with the knowledge and skills in this area gave her confidence to show her â€Å"expertise† to her peers (Principle of Empowerment, Strand 3, all goals, Strand 4, goal 4). What was impressive was the adults’ approach in the children’s learning as they threw stimulating questions at the children to deepen their explorations and discoveries. This is consistent with Te Whaariki’s belief that young children need adults who can provide them with th e resources, challenges and support they need for their widening interests and problem-solving capacities (Principles of Family and Community and Relationship) (MOE, 1996). Hedges (2008) advises teachers to be more responsive to the â€Å"here and now†. They need to loosen the reins of control over curriculum planning and share the construction of learning experiences with the children. This empowers children to learn for themselves and not just to respond to what the teacher offers (Principle of Empowerment, Holistic Development, Strands 3 and 5, all goals). Malaguzzi (1993) concludes that teachers should be researchers that think and produce a true curriculum centered on children’s needs. Teachers develop a curriculum from observing the children and noting down their developmental skills, interests and other

Gangs in America Why are they so out of control Essay

Gangs in America Why are they so out of control - Essay Example Gang problem in New York and California have been a long persisting issue. When comparing to others states in the US, juveniles and young adults joining gangs in these states are quite noteworthy. Notably, in majority cases, the common cause for participating in gang violence has been concentrated on sourcing money through illegal means within a short-term period. To be mentioned in this regards, California accounts for low rate of employment and low education standards that in turn substantiates the motives of young people getting involved in gang violence to suffice their economic requirements. However, in the case of New York, the motive has been identified to be more social and persisting as a trend among the youngsters (Sherwell, 2013). Concerning the legal issues associated with gang crimes, the foremost concern arises regarding social security of the community people. To be noted, as guns and other life-threatening weapons become readily available among criminals and gang memb ers, social security is hindered in the community, raising risks of domestic terrorism and various other crimes. In addition, young members of the society are also likely to become more vulnerable to gangs, hampering the stability of the society as well as its legal system at large, which will be a long-term challenge (Greenfield, 2012). To counter the issues raised by gang crimes in the society, legal authorities in New York and in California have been taking major decisions through courts, which in turn have imposed massive impressions on the nature and trends of gang violence in these states. Correspondingly, a direct influence of these court decisions can be witnessed on the strategies taken to demoralize gang involvements amid the society. For instance, the government in the US has taken effective and useful steps to reduce the crime in the nation, empowering law enforcers (Richard, 1999).

Virtual Personality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Virtual Personality - Essay Example It will informatively explain how each author develops this theme. To achieve this, the essay will briefly explain the similarities and differences therein. The essay will also denote the importance the defined similarities and differences to the common theme in the three chapters. The theme, online personality is common and generally runs through all the three articles. Online personality is how people behave, present, are seen, communicate, or generally how people interact with others via the internet. The three articles on concern have informatively presented this theme through how people connect and communicate in the social networks like Facebook and MySpace, how online created persons like avatar have represented real people, and how young people are using email and short hand messaging to communicate. In the article, â€Å"Virtual Friendship and the New Narcissism,† Christine Rosen has considerably developed the theme, â€Å"online personality† by reasonably addr essing the connection and communication modes as exhibited in the social networks like MySpace and Facebook. In her input, Christine has argued that the self-portrait, the profile, and the friends enlisted in great way reveal what we are, and present our personality to the world as we share it publicly.

Judaism and the Roots of Western Reli Coursework

Judaism and the Roots of Western Reli - Coursework Example Their belief lies in the principles that goodness will be rewarded by the God and sins will be certainly punished in the Judgment after death. They also have a strong belief that God would send Messiah to the world by the End of Days to redeem his people to the Promised Land. There are also various religious practices and ethics followed by the Jews, based on their belief in one God. In addition, the laws in Torah, the Jewish bible, form the foundation for their religion based customs and practices. Their way of worship is traditional, three times a day, by reading the scriptures of Torah. According to their customs, Sabbath, the holy day of rest is observed on Saturday, as a reminder about God’s rest after creation. Also Jews are prohibited to do specific kinds of work on that day. Those prohibitory practices are clearly mentioned in their scriptures. The most common Jewish symbol is the ‘Star of David’ that is used to represent them in synagogues. Rise of Synago gues Synagogues, in the olden days, acted as a place for community gatherings on Sabbaths and festivals. Later, after the exile of large number of people from the holy land, the tradition of sacrifice ceased with the prayer being viewed as the means of worship. This established the development of synagogues as an institution where daily prayers, community meeting and religious studies were observed. Soon after the destruction of the Holy Temple, synagogues were given a significant importance as the central place of Jewish religious life, especially for their social and religion based practices. â€Å"After the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans in 70 A.D. the synagogue emerges as a well established institution and the center of the social and religious life of the people.† (Harris, 2010). Though the actual origins of synagogue are not clearly stated in the annals of history, scholars infer that might have got originated right from the olden days of Babylonian exil e. However, there is a common misconception that synagogues started to emerge only after the destruction of their temple. This is indeed a wrong concept as synagogues always existed, even during the times of Temple. However, the key point is that the destruction of the Temple primarily led to the rise of synagogues as places of worship. Over the course of time, synagogues replaced the central sanctuary in Jerusalem holding the Ark with the Torah scrolls and the Ner Tamid, the everlasting flame. Comparison of Jewish traditions There exist three variants of Jewish traditions - Orthodox, Conservative and Reformed Jews, differing minimally and maximally by the customs and beliefs that they hold and practice. Orthodox Jews are those who attach the highest level of importance to the scriptures and the prayers, by strictly adhering to the Sabbath laws and traditional beliefs. Conservative Jews are slightly liberal in their belief of Judaism adapting it in line with their contemporary life, which is much contrary to the Orthodox Jewish beliefs which states that the customs and laws of Torah should not be altered or rejected, by any means. In the early 19th century, the Reformed Jewish traditions were formed in response to the Enlightenment in Germany, adopting Judaism as a religion rather than a race or culture. They rejected most or all of the rituals performed pertaining to Torah but much emphasized the ethical aspects of the religion. Unlike Conservative and Orthodox Jews, they hold a belief that Torah is merely a good

The U.K Identity Cards Bill and its implcations Essay

The U.K Identity Cards Bill and its implcations - Essay Example While the Bill and the stated objectives seem reasonable, and a large majority of the general public believe it to be good idea, there remains confusion and apprehension on the potential implications of the Bill to their privacy and civil liberties, not to mention the cost and policy implications.3 Unlike other means of individual identification, the proposed use of biometric technologies utilising biological information, and the introduction of a computerised National Identity Register, which permits users to track anybody, anytime, anywhere, in the modern networked society, apparently present far-reaching implications on the privacy and security of the individual, as well as the society. A research is deemed necessary to understand the implications of the Bill including that of the technology involved, in terms of the privacy and security concerns, as well as to look at alternative techniques or modes of identification, which may be considered by the government for successful imple mentation of the identity project. Researchers observe that biometric techniques, such as fingerprint verification, retina analysis, iris or face recognition, voice recognition, hand-written signature verification, are increasingly used in individual authentication and identification systems.4 While researchers are generally in agreement on the efficacy of the technology, experts in information technology and data security caution the possibility of errors including false matches and multiple identities, and the dangers of manipulations and misuse.5 Many researchers, both in the U.K and elsewhere, have studied the impact of biometric technologies on individual privacy and security.6 Researchers like Zorkadis and Donos observe that, "too wide utilisation of biometrics creates general concern for the protection of the fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals."7 According to them any human physiological or behavioural traits used in biometric technologies are personal data protected by privacy protection legislation. The U.K. Identity Cards Bill and the use of biometrics have received widespread criticism by policy analysts and academic researchers.8 The report by Joint Committee on Human Rights (JCHR) raises "a number of concerns relating to the human rights compatibility of the Bill"9. According to academics from the London School of Economics and Political Science the identity card bill proposals are "too complex, technically unsafe, overly prescriptive and lack a foundation of public trust and confidence."10 While the researchers support the concept of a national identity system for the UK, it considers the present legislation and the scheme "as a potential danger to the public interest and to the legal rights of individuals."11 Other policy analysts also condemn the Bill as an unwarranted state intervention in individual freedom and privacy-Dolan Cummings states that the ID card proposals are in effect trying to "reconstitute the public as membership organisation" 12 creating a society in which the members have to constantly prove their identity to

Any student caught cheating on an examination should be automatically Essay - 1

Any student caught cheating on an examination should be automatically dismissed from college - Essay Example Students should be made to understand why cheating is wrong instead of just telling them it is wrong. This is done to prepare students for life challenges and make them understand the steps needed to succeed in life the honest way. This involves dealing with cheating cases in an intelligent way which supports and promotes honesty in the student. Letting students get away with cheating or imposing severe and destructive punishments does not favor them. Instead, Gardner et al., (2008) proposes that different punishments such as failing the students and calling their parents to talk to them may offer the best solution. The punishment issued should not affect the student’s future and thus requires the lecturers to be vigilant so that fairness can be achieved. Lecturers need to take a holistic view of exam cheating specifically in the current times where the students are brought up in a decadent society. Colleges need to devise better ways of solving students’ problems that prompt them to result in cheating during examinations. Automatic dismissal is too harsh and painful both for the students who are caught cheating and for the overall community. Cases of examination cheating have tremendously increased in colleges today which renders automatic dismissal inadequate solution. Students who cheat are prompted by the desire for higher grades and the fear of failure. Students cheat for various reasons some of which are psychological. As such, the foundation of the solution lies in understanding the core reason of cheating. Cheating has many forms ranging from copying from a friend’s works, using phones, the internet, plagiarism, sneaking books and other written materials and passing off as another person into the exam room. The severity of the punishment deserving of students cheating in an examination should be moderated depending on the gravity of their actions as opposed to dismissing all examination cheaters alike. College life requires hard work and

Development of Stratford Because of the Olympics Essay Example for Free

Development of Stratford Because of the Olympics Essay The 2012 Olympics were held in Stratford in the East of London, many of the events took place here. The Olympic park covered an area of 500 acres which features the new built Olympic stadium, the London aquatics centre, the basketball arena, the London velopark and the riverbank arena. Boxing, fencing, judo, table tennis etc. was in the river zone which is located both sides of the River Thames in the Thames gateway area. The central zone which includes venues such as the Wembley stadium (where the finals of football competitions took place) also the Wembley Arena (Badminton) and Wimbledon (Tennis), covered most of central and West London. Stratford was chosen because the London bid team persuaded the 10c that this part of East London was in need of regeneration. Stratford was also chosen because the bid also proved that the area had potential, Javelin trains would take only 7 minutes from London and also the rivers in the area could make the Olympic park look beautiful. Also alongside the old network of river and canals there was plenty of room for new development. This has been one of the most compact Olympic parks – only about 2  ½ square kilometres. Economic: Development will transform rundown rail lands into major shopping and business location. 120 shops and cafes. Environmental: Olympic village will be converted into permanent homes.  The development will attract homes, businesses and visitors because it will look improved and welcoming. Wide variety of open space.  Visionary urban design, architecture and transport projects. The Stratford area will be transformed from a derelict filthy city into a clean, modern city. The regeneration of Stratford will help it be noticed and it will be transformed into a totally new place. The place and people will be noticed in a different and better way. Stratford has been improved in a great way because in the long term massive, new sporting facilities have been built which will attract people as it is a legacy of the games. Also in the long term, old houses have been knocked down and re-built making Stratford look more modern and looked after. Another reason as to why Stratford has been improved is because of more jobs that have been created which will attract more people to the area and make it well known. Another benefit and improvement is that the Olympic park ‘largest Urban Park in Europe for 50 years’ will create a better image for London and East End. Increased participation in sport for young people has been increased making East London and London look like a great healthy place possibly persuading adults to live in London with their children so their children have a healthier and more active life. One of the improvements I have mentioned (old houses being knocked down and new ones being built) has been classed as a social issue because of complaints saying it will change the socio economic structure and the geography of Stratford. Some residents have been offended negatively from the development of Stratford as almost  £9.3 billion has been spent on the games with three quarters of it earmarked for regeneration and they say it is hard to see where the money has gone. This suggests to us that their area has been left and not improved leaving it as it is was and many other areas have been left as they are too. A positive impact on the residents is that their area is going to become well known because of the Olympics and also many more new modern homes and jobs are being created and becoming available. More positive reasons that have affected the residents are that they have reduced untidiness by removing any unnecessary railings, posts, bins and benches. Also they have improved the quality of open spaces and they have planted trees in groups along the road and introduce greenery too make the traffic seem less dominating.

The Importance Of Privacy And Confidentiality Health Essay

The Importance Of Privacy And Confidentiality Health Essay Privacy and confidentiality are extremely important in the contemporary healthcare system, especially in relation to family and child counseling. Today, it is necessary to research implications of the introduction of confidentiality and privacy in health care environment. Basically, the problem of privacy and confidentiality refers not only to ethical but also legal issues since healthcare professionals are obliged to maintain the confidentiality and protect private information of patients from breaches. However, healthcare professionals may face a dilemma between preserving privacy and confidentiality of children counseling and treatment and the natural desire of parents to get all information about the treatment and the state of their children. Introduction First of all it should be said that the privacy and confidentiality is guaranteed to any patient, regardless his or her age, social position, race, etc. In the last years relations between doctors, patients and wide public suffered considerable changes. Although a doctor must operate in behalf of a patient conformable to the conscience, the corresponding guarantees of the autonomy and just attitude toward the patient are also needed. The most meaningful international sources of rights for citizens in the area of medicine are: the Lisbon declaration of the World medical association about the rights of patients, adopted on the 34th session of the World medical assembly (Lisbon, Portugal, September/October, 1981, with bringing of the amendments on the 47th session of the General assembly, Bali, Indonesia, September, 1995) and the Declaration about the policy in the area of providing of rights for a patient in Europe (European conference on rights for patients, Amsterdam, March, 28-30, 1994. World Health Organization, the European regional bureau). According to the indicated documents all patients have the following rights while providing the medical care: the right for high-quality medical help; the right for freedom of choice; the right for the informed consent; the right to inquire the opinion of another doctor on any stage; the right of self-determination; the right for information; the right for confidentiality; the right for the medical-social education; the right for dignity; the right for religious help and assistance. Attitude toward the patient must always be built with the maximal account of his interests; the applied treatment must correspond to the generally accepted and ratified medical principles. Confidentiality of medical information Confidentiality of medical information is the confidenceness and secrecy of information, reported by a patient to the medical worker at an appeal and receipt of medical care. Medical secret is the data, not subjected to the disclosure, about the fact of appeal of a patient for medical help, diagnosis, and another information about the state of his health and private life, received as the result of inspections and treatments, prophylaxis and rehabilitation. At an appeal for medical help and its receipt a patient has the right for maintenance in the secret of information about the fact of appeal for medical help, about the state of health, diagnosis and another information, got at his examination and treatment, and also on the choice of persons, whom in behalf of the patient the information about his state of the health may be given to. In the case of violation of rights for a patient he can apply with a complaint directly to the leader or another public servant of medical and preventive establishment in which the medical care is given to him, to the corresponding professional medical associations and licensed commissions or to a court. The right of the citizens for the confidentiality of the information transferred by them at an appeal and receipt of medical care, and also another information, making the medical secret, generates the responsibility of medical workers and another persons for its disclosure. As it has already been said every person has the right for confidentiality and privacy. And it does not matter if the patient is a child or a grown-up, because children are also individuals and they also have rights. This is confirmed by documents. All the identified information about the state of patients health, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment, and also any another information of the personal character is considered to be confidential even after the death of the patient. In exceptional cases the descendants may get a title access to the information, concerning the risk of the inherited diseases. The confidential information may be divulged only in the case that the patient will give a direct consent or such disclosure is directly foreseen by the law. The information may be revealed to other establishments of health protection exceptionally when it is necessary, if the patient has not given a direct consent. All the identified information about the patient must be guarded. The defence of information is carried out in accordance with the order of their storage. The persons whom the identified information may come from must be protected in the analogical order. All the information about the state of health of the patient, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of his disease, and also any other information of the personal character must be kept in secret, even after the death of the patient. The confidential information may be exposed only when there is a clear expressed consent of the patient for this, or it is required by the law. The consent of the patient is assumed to opening of confidential information to the medical personnel, taking part in treatment of the patient. All the data that are able to declare the identity of the patient must be protected. The degree of defence must be in the adequate form of storage of the data. The parts of the human body, from which it is possible to extract the identification information, also must be kept with the observance of requirements of defence. The patients have the right for the access to the medical report, and also to all the materials, that concern the diagnosis and treatment. The patient has the right to get the copies of these materials. However the data concerning the third persons must not become accessible for the patient. The patient has the right to demand the correction, addition, clarifications and/or the exclusion of the data of the personal and medical character, if they are inexact, unfull or does not relate to the explanations of the diagnosis and realization of treatment. Any intruding in the questions of the personal and domestic life of the patient is forbidden, except for those cases, when the patient does not object against it and the necessity of the encroachment is dictated by the aims of diagnostics and treatment. In any case, the medical intruding in the personal life of the patient surely supposes the respect of his secrets. That is why such encroachment should be carried out only in the real presence of the strictly necessary for its realization persons, if the patient will not wish something other. The patients, coming and entering the medical and preventive establishment, have the right to count on the presence of inventory and equipment in this establishment, necessary for the guarantee of the maintenance of medical secret, especially in those cases, when the medical workers provide care, accomplish the research and medical procedures. On the other hand, this formal protection of the private information of children patients comes into clashes with the insistence of parents who are unwilling their child or children having any secrets from them, especially if the health of children is under concern. In this respect, it should be said that children, unlike adult patients, do not have absolutely identical rights since they are not fully responsible for their actions and their personality is not fully shaped. As a result, it is parents of children that are responsible for them and, therefore, they have larger rights to get access to information concerning their children, their health and treatment. Reception of information The persons under age have the right for the receipt of necessary information about the state of their health in an accessible form for them; here the minors have the right for the voluntarily informed consent to the medical interference or refuse from it. The necessary precedent condition for the medical interference is the informed voluntarily consent of the citizen. The consent to the medical interference in regard to the persons, not attaining majority, give their legal representatives, i.e. parents after revealing them the information. In default of legal representatives a concilium makes decision about the medical interference, and at the impossibility to gather a concilium the directly treating (attendant) doctor does it with the subsequent notification of public servants of the medical organization and legal representatives of the patient. A citizen or his legal representative has the right to refuse the medical interference or to demand its stopping. At refuse from the medical interference the possible consequences must be explained to the citizen or his legal representative in an accessible for him form. The refuse from medical interference with pointing of possible consequences is formalized by a record in the medical documentation and is signed by the citizen or his legal representative, and also by the medical worker. At the refuse of parents or other legal representatives of a person, not attaining adult age, from medical care, necessary for the rescue of life of the indicated persons, the hospital establishment has the right to appeal to the court for defence of interests of these persons. The right of the citizens for keeping in secret the information about the fact of appeal for medical help, about the state of health, diagnosis and another information, making a medical secret, generates the duty of medical workers and other persons, having an access to this information, to providing of its confidentiality. If a patient is under age or incapable on some other reasons, the consent of the legally appointed representative is required, when such possibility is foreseen by the legislation. Nevertheless, a patient must take a direct part in decision-making in a maximally possible volume. If an under age patient is able to accept rational decisions, his decisions must be taken into account and he has the right to forbid the disclosure of information to his legally appointed representative. If the legally appointed representative or a person, authorized by the patient, does not give consent to treatment, which, in opinion of the doctor, answers the interests of health of the patient, the doctor is necessary to contest the indicated decision in corresponding legal or another establishment. In an extraordinary situation the doctor is necessary to operate in behalf of health of the patient. So, from the said above we can make a conclusion that children have also rights for privacy and confidentiality but parents, who are responsible for them, have the right to know about the state of health of their children and about their medical treatment. One of the most spread medical problems in the United States is the problem of obesity among school children. The epidemic of obesity is one of the major problems of health protection. For the last two decades the indexes of prevalence of obesity grew almost in three times. In the countries of the WHO the half of adult population and every fifth child have the surplus mass of body, and the third from them already suffers obesity, here the number of such persons increases in rapid rates. The overweight and obesity play a considerable role in the development of many uninfectious illnesses, result in reduction of the expected life-span and render the unfavorable affecting quality of life. Every year diseases, related to the surplus mass of body, become reason of more than one million cases of death. An especially anxious tendency is observed among children and teenagers, that conduces to strengthening of epidemic among the adult population and creates a really big threat to the health of our future generations. The annual rates of growth of indexes of prevalence of obesity among children continuously increase and presently exceed the level of 1970 to ten times. Professor Recep AkdaÄÅ ¸, for example, marks that obesity is one of the major problems of community health care in the twenty the first century. Use of the integral approach to the solution of this problem, for which he comes forward, will allow to take into account all its aspects: violation of feed, physical activity, and also socio-economic factors and development of policy in this area examining them from the point of view of epidemic distribution of this problem, being beyond the temporal and national borders. In particular, the growth of epidemic of obesity among children and teenagers is a threat to the health and welfare of future generations. Mr. Recep Tayyip Erdogan, prime minister of Turkey, pays attention that the problem of obesity lies down as a heavy burden both on the systems of health protection and on the economy of countries. In particular, he expressed a concern about the consequences of obesity for the health of children, and also frequency of cases of premature death, related to obesity. He marks that he does not believe in the efficiency of the simplified approaches, such as a simple motive of people to eat more healthy food and not to engage anymore in physical exercises. Michelle Obama says that one of the most serious dangers for our future is an epidemic of obesity of children in America. This problem disturbs her not only as the First lady, but as a mother. The truth is that children have not done themselves obese. They are fed by parents like this; they are fed at school like this. Children do not produce foods in which there is too much sugar or salt. And however they ask pizza, fried potato and candies, the decision depends on adults, on us. So, let us clarify what is obesity. Presence of surplus amount of fat in an organism is called obesity. This state, usually determined as an overweight, presents a serious danger for the physical health of people. Statistical data of different insurance companies beyond controversy testify that considerable obesity is attended with an enhanceable death rate from the row of heavy diseases. Researches, conducted by G. Mayer and his employees in the Harvard University, showed that obese girls-teenagers possessed the same psychological features that persons, belongings to the minorities, exposed to discrimination. Obese young girls are not only too concerned by the state but also differ in passivity, fearing a hostile relation to itself. These fears are fed by the real displays of antipathy from the side of surroundings. Moreover, fashion-papers and movies with the participation of very thin models and actresses, propaganda in newspapers and magazines of diets for slimming and obtrusive advertising of quack receptions, pills and recipes for the decline of weight increase the psychological danger which suffering from obesity young people are exposed to. The estimations of prevalence of obesity depend on the used criteria. For example, lets remember that in 1950-1952 Ministries of health of the USA conducted the research of frequency of overweight among an adult population, using tables height/weight. The percent of people with an overweight hesitated from 9 to 40%. Nevertheless the amount of the inspected was not too great, except for the cities of Atlanta (something about 140 000 persons) and Richmond (something about 36 000 persons, and from them 12% with an overweight). At the inspection of children in the district of Boston it turned out that the frequency of the sharply expressed obesity exceeded 26%. The danger consists in the habit to the wrong feed and the overweight in childs age may be also saved in youth and further for adults, when it is already contingently with evident consequences for humans health. More and more specific data show that obesity in childs and juvenile age combines with the early displays of atherosclerosis disease, characterized by the deposit of fatty matters on the walls of arteries. The overweight in childhood is a predecessor of obesity in the adult age. The row of associate physical and emotional problems accompanying obesity may last all the life, in particular case for women. Moreover, the probability of obesity for adults in this case increases: 50% of children which had an overweight in 6 years become obese by adults; in teens this probability increases to 80%. The paediatrician Frank à Ã‚ . Franklin the medical director of the UAB/Childrens Hospital Childrens Center for Weight Management considers that years are needed for the side effects of obesity to develop, but some children of early age also may suffer from serious diseases. Medical states such as a diabetes mellitus of the second type, apneustic breath, hypertension and risk of atherosclerosis factors, meeting before almost exceptionally for adults, now appear for children with the surplus mass. Early interference, till the stereotypes of feed and way of life are fixed, reduces the chances of proof obesity and complications related to it. The prevalence of obesity in the USA gained the character of epidemic. The data for 1999 2000 of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) show, that in the period between 1960s and the end of 1990s the amount of children with obesity in the age from 6 to 11 years has more than tripled, increasing from 4% to 15.3% (JAMA. 2002;288: 1728-1732). This tendency was saved for children in the age from 12 to 19 years, during this interval of time the prevalence grew from 5% to 15.5%. The fascination of prevalence is most of all expressed in the Americans of Mexican origin and teenagers-Afro-Americans. Gender features are not found out. Presently, one of 5 children in the USA has an overweight according to the last data of NHANES, children begin to suffer from the overweight earlier. More than 10% of under-fives suffer from the overweight Franklin says. Thus, additionally 15% of children and teenagers in the age from 6 to 19 years are exposed to the risk of obesity. In 2000 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC worked out the diagrams based on body mass index (BMI), for determining the surplus weight in the childs age. The maps of the height worked out by CDC determine normal vibrations of BMI for the individuals in the age from 2 to 20 years, explains Franklin. BMI for children must be determined annually for all the children. A doctor must measure the arteriotony, glucose and cholesterol for the children with an overweight with the purpose of diagnostics of secondary complications, and also the level of triglycerides. The dramatic increase of prevalence of surplus mass for children is fed by many socially-ethics factors, including the increase of variety of food, size of portions and electoralness in food, as well as by the increase of consumption of sweetened drinks and decline of physical activity. The endogenous cases of obesity are rare, Franklin underlines. Genetic syndromes, including Cohen and Bardet Biedl, are presented by dismorphic features and delay of development in addition to obesity. The deceleration of height in length is related to the syndrome of Prader Willi and endocrine reasons of obesity, such as hypothyroidism and syndrome of Cushing. A normal height in length is not characteristic for these states, Franklin marks. Moreover, children with the idiopathic increase of body mass are often higher than the average height (for their age), and often have domestic anamnesis burdened by obesity. Children with an overweight must be examined on the concomitant pathology. Under the concomitant pathology one understands the diabetes, obstructive apneustic breath, illnesses of skin, orthopaedic problems related to the weight, cholelithiasis, depression and cardial risk factors. Obesity can be classified by its etiology (by the origin) on genetically conditioned, at which heredity comes forward on the first plan; traumatic, conditioned by the damage of a certain area of cerebrum, namely hypothalamus, by endocrine diseases or psychical disorders; and exogenous, developing as a result of immobility or surplus of fats in the feed (this type of obesity is also observed at some types of animals). Different etiologic factors, doubtless, co-operate with each other in a great degree. For example, genetic obesity shows up only in condition of the sufficient feed. Obesity can be also classified by the mechanism of its development. On this basis criterion, we may distinguish the regulator types of obesity, which the cerebral focis of adjusting of the appetite are broken at, and metabolic, related to the metabolic disturbance. According to Cornette (2008) the states, characterized by turbo speed of synthesis of fats in an organism, by violation of their use (oxidizations), and also braking of selection of glucose by the liver are related to the last. Such metabolic changes also result in the increase of appetite. Experiments on animals, mainly on mice, showed the existence of many varieties of both regulator and metabolic obesity. Although classification of obesity for a man only begins, it is not eliminated that it may be based on the same principles. It is also possible, that the regulator obesity is the most widespread for a man; the insufficient physical activity belongs to the number its reasons. Modern information about the mechanisms of adjusting of appetite does not allow to understand for a while up to the end how the different types of obesity development for a man. However it is quite clear, that this regulator system is extraordinarily difficult. In 1912 the prominent American physiologist W. Cannon showed that privation of food caused rhythmic reductions of stomach; strong reductions are accompanied by the unpleasant feelings which are one of the elements of sense of hunger. The French pathologist G.Roussy discovered at this time, that the damage of hypothalamus (small area of brain, being situated at once above a hypophysis) promoted an appetite for a man, resulting sometimes in voracity. Later G.Brobek and B. Anand in the University of Yale found out in the hypothalamus the areas, called lateral focis; at destruction of these focis an animal stopped eating. In future à -. Mayer showed that some areas of cerebrum, called satiations of saturation, controlled the hungry reductions of stomach, and also braked the activity of lateral focis. It was also set, that after eating the sense of satiation, i.e. gap-fillingness of stomach, arising up at once, formed with the participation of the row of neurohormonal reflexes. It is clear, that such a difficult mechanism, having metabolic, endocrine, neurological and psychological aspects, may be broken by many methods. The next example shows that even easy violations in time affect very noticeably. So, 500 g of fatty fabric for a man are equivalent to approximately 3500 calories. Power inputs at moderate physical activity are made by 3000 calories a day. If one consumes 3100 calories a day, that only on 3% exceeds expenses, then it will give the increase of about 5 kg of fat in a year. It is set, that for children, who have one of the parents suffering from obesity, the frequency of the overweight is much higher, than for those who have thin parents, and among children who have both parents suffering from obesity, the frequency of the overweight arrives to 80%. Between the bodyweight of adopted children and parents, even if the adoption happened in the first months of the childs life, the correlation is rather weak or quite absent. Finally, it is shown that the persons of a certain build are much more predispositioned to obesity, than the others, and the build, as it is generally known, is determined genetically. Having studied the question of obesity I have my opinion on its treating. Any person, aspiring to be delivered from obesity, must foremost understand that it is conditioned by surplus of calories, i.e. it arose up because during some time the consumption of food exceeded the power inputs. The decline of weight may be obtained by either diminishing of consumption of food (by the observance of diet), either increasing of power inputs (by physical exercises) or combination of the first and the second. As it was already mentioned, 500 g of fatty tissues are equivalent to something about 3500 calories. So, to lose this amount of fat, a deficit is needed in 3500 calories. Let us suppose that a child for the indemnification of his power inputs must get 2000 calories a day. If he will consume food in an amount, equivalent only to 1500 calories a day, then in a week he will become thin approximately on 500 gs. If he consumes only 1000 calories a day, the slimming will make the whole kilogram for a week. Except for the special circumstances, to lose weight more than on 1-1,2 kg a week is undesirable. Moreover, although for most people the loss of a few kilograms threatens nothing; it is possible to begin the rapid decline of weight only under the doctors control. As a rule, it is not recommended for children to reduce the weight. Best of all is to save the weight of an obese child at the permanent level, while a kid will not grow to it. When the question is about childrens obesity, it is important to remember that often it is related mainly to the insufficient physical activity, but not to the plenty of food and that it is simpler and more effective to increase the physical activity of a child, than to limit him in the meal. It will be necessary also to mean, that the permanent critical remarks concerning the obesity of a child or teenager bring more harm, than benefit. Finally, it is necessary to emphasize that any kind of diet for growing children must be valuable. The use of the unbalanced fashionable diets, even if they provide the decline of weight, may have very heavy consequences. An important value in controlling of body weight is the attitude of the man and surroundings. Although the fight against obesity requires the self-discipline and persistence, it mainly presents a medical, but not moral variation of problem, and doctors, as well as all the surroundings, must help a patient, but not to convert obesity into the cause for reproaches. Frightening is not certainly recommended, however the underlining of connection between the obesity and illnesses, and also positive influence of decline of weight on the appearance often serves as an incentive reason for the patient. Nevertheless the promises of rapid success may appear so dangerous, as well as threats, in particular when the question is about children. Experience shows that most people imagine very dimly, what foods are high-calorific, and what are not. Therefore a doctor must make sure that a patient has some picture of power value of different foods of feed. Advertising of producers, propagandizing low-caloric bread, light beer etc interferes a complete awareness in this area. A popular information about the effect of physical exercises also requires corrections. It is quite not needed for the obeses to exhaust themselves from time to time by the excessive loading. However they must firmly know that the course of slimming requires the everyday moderate physical activity, if only, that is extremely rarely, it is not contra-indicated on the medical considering. it is necessary to lead to the patient the role of genetic predisposition to obesity, for the persons with the burdened heredity to watch especially carefully after the weight. The value of physical activity for the fight against an overweight is often neglected, and such approach is even ridiculed sometimes. It is related to two erroneous presentations. One of them consists in that most physical loading is allegedly attended only with very small power inputs, and the second is in that the increase of physical activity allegedly is always accompanied by the increase of consumption of food, that deletes its effect. The first error is easy to overcome, familiarizing with the concrete table of power expenses at the various types of physical activity. For an hour of walking, for example, a man weighing about 70 kg depending on the fast spends from 150 to 400 calories over ordinary. While running the same man expends from 800 to 1000 calories in an hour, while wheeling from 200 to 600, and while rowing to 1200 calories in an hour. Moreover, an obese man expends more energy on the same type of physical activity, than the man of normal weight. The second misbelief according to which the increase of physical activity entails the increase of use of food is based on the misinterpretation of the known facts. Really, the additional loading for a physically active man requires a corresponding increase of calorie intakes, otherwise the progressing exhaustion develops, and death may even come from malnutrition. Farmers know since long ago, that maintenance of animals in close cages makes them more obese, and more data show that the similar factor the full absence of physical activity plays an important role in the development of obesity for a man. At the inspection of children, I mean schoolboys of initial and senior classes, who live near-by Boston, it was discovered that they usually acquire the superfluous weight in winter months, i.e. in the period, when the physical activity of most children in these climatic terms is mionectic. At comparison of class-mates of different weight, but of one height it turned out that the thick girls do not eat quite more than the girls of normal weight, and even less. However the thick girls spare far fewer time for the physical loading. Other interesting fact was found out at a survey and further analysis of motions of the thick and thin girls during the lessons of physical education. It turned out, that even during the lessons the first are not so act ive, as second ones. Whenever possible (in absence of medical contra-indications) the persons suffering from obesity must regularly take exercises, especially children who can not be hold on strict diets, because it can tell on the height of the organism and have psychological fallouts. In addition, it is good to aspire to the harmonious development of childs body, and not simply to the loss of fat. The most accessible and inexpensive type of physical exercises is still walking. Although only 200-300 calories are spent for an additional sentinel walk, the daily expenses are added up. For a year, for example, the daily sentinel walks will provide the loss of such amount of calories, which is equivalent to 7-14 kg. Engaging in swimming and tennis will bring to the loss of approximately 700 calories for an hour. A healthy child does not test some unpleasant feeling from the half-hour of physical activity, requiring an expense of 500-600 calories in an hour. The restrictive diets must answer three requirements: 1) to create the deficit of calories; 2) to provide the balanced feed in order to avoid healths risk and 3) to be adapt, not very expensive and to correspond to the flavor of a patient, so that he with a pleasure could with some variations cleave to the chosen kind of diet for a long time, and may be, also during all his life. The widely advertised fashionable diets are able to provide the success for some short period, however they can not be recommended for the protracted period of time. An opinion was spoke out, that the special diets are possible to use for the reduction of sizes of stomach or diminishing

Stanford Prison Experiment

Stanford Prison Experiment The Stanford Prison Experiment is one of the most notorious and interesting experiments in recent social psychology history. Even though the goals of this experiment were to study the psychological effects of prison on people, it shed some light on how our behaviors can be changed through the roles we participate in. Current research, and role theory, has suggested that roles play a part in our identities and behavior. Parallels between the Stanford Prison Experiment and current research will be studied. A Study on Societal Roles:Â  An Examination of the Stanford Prison Experiment We play many roles in our day to day life: wife, mother, sister, friend, and coworker. Each role has implied duties that we may or may not be so aware of. We work diligently at balancing all of our responsibilities, which if balance is not attained, could lead to dysfunction in a persons life. In order to lead a healthy life, one must examine each role he or she plays. A Stanford social psychology professor, Phillip Zimbardo, was one of the pioneers in exploring social roles, behaviors, and how they are affected by certain situations. His radical research experiment opened up the eyes of the participants and many others as to what we will do in order to fulfill our roles. Zimbardo spent most of his early career conducting behavioral studies that focused on biological processes such as hunger and thirst. It wasnt until the 1960s that he really began to focus on social psychology issues, such as conformity. Philip Zimbardos experiment on prison life demonstrated how quickly a person can dissolve their own identity to fit into the social roles expected of them. The outcome and aftermath of this experiment is still important in current day psychology. First, Zimbardo chose the participants of the experiment to reflect the common or average individuals in the current society. According to Zimbardo, most were college aged, white males, who were from a middle class socioeconomic background (Haney, Banks, Zimbardo, 1973). After random assignment, the prisoner participants were arrested, booked, and then taken to the prison (Zimbardo, Haney, Banks, Jaffe, 1973). In an attempt to make the prison relatively realistic, Zimbardo spent a great deal of time with t he details such as the appearance of the prison and the cells, the uniforms of the guards, and the entry process for the prisoners on the first day. All of these components were planned in an effort to dehumanize, demoralize, and emasculate the prisoners (Zimbardo et al, 1973). The uniforms, weapons, and instructions that the guards received were in an effort to deindividualize them, which effectively displaced their identity, and supported their new authoritative roles (Zimbardo et al, 1973). By day two, the roles were firmly in place in both the prisoners and the guards. After a brief rebellion by the prisoners, the guards felt even more justified in their actions and aggression towards them (Zimbardo et al, 1973). The guards became sadistic, grossly exerting their control to the point of not allowing the prisoners to use the bathroom, instead forcing them to relieve themselves in a bucket that was not removed from the cells (Zimbardo et al, 1973). As time went on, the prisoners s howed signs of acute stress, changes in their mood and behaviors, and started to act in complete obedience to the guards (Zimbardo et al, 1973). The environment in the prison experiment became so dangerous that it was ended before the expected time period of completion. There are many reasons why this experiment was ethically unsuccessful yet rich in information about behaviors and roles. I believe that there were many influences which caused the participants to delve so deeply into their assigned roles. One factor that may have helped to change the participants behaviors was the fact that there was a power hierarchy. Even though this hierarchy was a farce and only part of an experiment, both the guards and the prisoners integrated this perceived imbalance into their identity. The actions, behaviors and attitudes of all involved changed drastically in the six days that the experiment was active. The male participants started off psychologically and physically healthy, as tested before the experiment by Zimbardo (Zimbardo et al, 1973). They soon changed into either sadistic, aggressive guards or anxious, compliant prisoners (Zimbardo et al, 1973). Outside people, who were loosely involved in the experiment, also performed certain roles. Both a priest and lawyer were contacted near the end of the experiment and both acted as though the prisoners were incarcerated in a real jail (Zimbardo et al, 1973). Zimbardo also admitted that his role as Superintendent became very realistic to him (1973). I believe other factors may have also affected the participants: the environment, the presence of the Warden and Superintendent, and the emotional environment within the experiment. Almost every person who came into contact with this experiment changed their point of view to yield to the success of the experiment; all becoming actors in a pretend, simulated situation. It took the experiments premature ending to remind everyone of their own identities, and that this was supposed to be a scientific study. This experiment, while only intending to study a small microcosm of human behavior, uncovered truths that may explain our behaviors in a much broader sense. The Stanford Prison Experiment has far reaching implications. Even though his study focused on a prison environment, the change in behaviors and attitudes due to our social roles can be seen in everyday life. In order to fully understand how our roles affect our behavior, we must first examine what comprises a role. A role is a set of norms that define how people should behave (Myers, 2008, p. 128). Role theory is concerned with studying patterned and characteristic social behaviors, parts or identities that are assumed by social participants, and scripts or expectations for behavior that are understood by all and adhered to by performers (Biddle, 1986, p.68). According to role theory, social attitudes can affect how we behave and even how we define ourselves. An interesting way to view the interactions of our various roles is to organize them into a classification system, similar to what is seen in Biology. What starts as a broad classification, such as our culture and gender, can t hen be reduced into smaller classifications such as local affiliations. All of these roles interact with each other and affect our daily lives. For example, I am a female in an individualistic culture. Each of those categories comes with certain expectations. Life would be vastly different for me if I were to be a female in a collectivistic society. Just one change in the hierarchy could change the subsequent roles that appear in my life. The study of roles and behaviors has been applied to many subjects. Many studies have been completed on how gender roles can have a negative effect on womens lives. Texas A M students Wood, Christensen, Hebl, and Rothgerber conducted a study on self concepts and role congruency (1997). Roles of males were defined by dominance and females were defined as intimate and communal (Wood et al, 1997). The research results showed signs that men had a more positive self concept when presented with situations similar to that of the normative sex role, i.e. dominance (Wood et al, 1997). Women had the similar tendency to have a positive self concept when presented with situations congruent with female roles (Wood et al, 1997). But what if a woman expressed more dominance? What if a womans lifestyle called for situations that required a more dominant, incongruent role norm? Eagly and Kassau postulated that women have a distinct disadvantage in leadership roles in the work environment due to expectations of their gender roles (2002). Women were perceived as less capable of being in a leadership role and evaluated negatively (Eagly and Kassau, 2002). This role congruity theory may explain many hardships experienced by females, such as the glass ceiling effect. Women may very well be hindered in their careers due to gender stereotypes. Men may also be judged for choosing career paths that are perceived as having more feminine qualities, such as nursing. Furthermore, men face criticism for staying at home with their children while their wive s work, also considered incongruent with current gender roles. With more and more women working, the standards for certain roles will inevitably have to change. Gender roles are just one small example of how social standards can affect our attitudes, behaviors, and how we live. As stated before, we have a multitude of roles that we live by throughout our lives. Each role comes with a unique set of social implications and prescribed behaviors. Each role becomes subtly stamped into our identity, integrated into who we are. I believe this quote is a wonderful summation and parallel analysis to the Stanford Prison Experiment and real world issues of roles and behaviors. Zimbardo states: In some ways, everyone will be a prisoner or a guard at some point in their life, because a guard is simply someone who limits the freedom of another person. Parents, spouses, and bosses do this all the time. And the recipients of this behavior? Well, they are the prisoners. (Slavich, 2009). Even though this statement may seem somewhat pessimistic, there may be a grain of truth in regards to the commitment to our roles and the consequences. We make little concessions to our freedoms every day. For example, we have obligations to work X amount of hours per week. Maybe we limit some of our behaviors out of respect for our spouses. Overall, I dont believe that most people can say that they get to do what they want to one hundred percent of the time. Our daily lives are dominated by rules and restrictions and that is not always a bad thing. But I believe it is important to examine closely the restrictions posed by the roles present in ones life. Zimbardo dared to ask the question: where does ones identity end and ones role begin? (1973). The two seem to be invariably intertwined, each having an effect on the other. The heavy weighing expectations of our roles seem to form parts of our identity. Are we, as people, greater than the sum of our roles? Or are we truly defined by our roles, and our roles alone? Does being a parent, or a spouse, or an employee of a certain company truly define you as a person? After reading Zimbardos The Lucifer Effect and watching many of his public speeches, I believe he would say that we have the power to use our roles for good. Also, that we are capable of transcending and breaking free from the negative, evil roles in our lives. Philip G. Zimbardo conducted one of the most important experiments in Social Psychology. The Stanford Prison Experiment gave us amazing insight into how extreme we will go in our actions and behaviors to fulfill our roles.

President :: essays research papers

Presidential Essay The real question at hand is what is a President? A President is a leader, someone who others will trust and rely on to make the right choices and decisions for the general public, or in this case the residents of the building. A President must possess many skills and abilities, for he is the chief officer of the organization, and is entrusted with the direction and administration of its policies. This is a very serious and important position, in which the person who assumes that role must be capable of performing at the highest level of capability. The President must possess people skills, which is the ability to respond appropriately to every situation in an appropriate and efficient manner. He has to be able to work well with others, especially the other members of his cabinet. The President must also have an expertise in communication skills, oral and written, so as to have the ability to talk with the students and fully understand exactly what they are saying and asking for. Aft er all, it is the job of the President to do what is best for the students. The president must be trustworthy, and have the trust of his cabinet members. He must be reliable, so he can take care of all problems or issues that come his way. Most of all, the President must be motivated. He has to have the fire in his heart, which burns at the thought of helping out and representing his peers. This is why I know that I am the right person for this position, because I possess all of these qualifications. I am the right man for the job, as I will not accept defeat, and will do everything that is in my powers to be the best possible representative of my peers, my residents, my friends. I have chosen to run for president, because I know and understand what the common person wants, and I have ideas on how to make this the greatest year living in La Riviere ever. Twenty years from now, I want everyone to look back on their experiences in La Riviere, smile, and say "I, President of the H all Council, made my sophomore year the greatest one at WNEC." I am running for Hall Council President because I want to make a difference. I want the opportunity, as President, to make one person's year a little bit better.

The Economics of Despair :: essays research papers

Since the late 1970s, social science researchers, the media, private foundations, and policymakers have directed considerable attention to the labor market problems of young adults and their families. Most of this attention has focused on high school dropouts, the poor, minorities, and inner-city youth. But an equally troubling—and broader—problem has received comparatively less notice: the steep and sustained decline since 1973 in the real (inflation-adjusted) earnings of young men and women generally. Even adjusting for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, the labor market problems of young workers are disproportionately severe—they include higher than average unemployment and relatively low earnings when employed. This sustained drop in earnings has been especially dramatic for young adults with no postsecondary school education. Most proposed remedies have emphasized the quality of the labor supply. But improving education and training, while often worthwhile and necessary, is not by itself sufficient to raise earnings. If this downward trend, which has persisted through recession and recovery alike, is to be reversed, then policymakers and educators must address the demand side as well as the supply side. Raising young adult wages will require not only better academic performance, training, apprenticeships, and school-to-work programs, but also full-employment policies, changes in the configuration of jobs and careers, and larger young adult union membership. Prior to 1973, the annual and weekly earnings of both young adults and older workers had been improving markedly. Between 1967 (the year the Bureau of Labor Statistics began tracking weekly earnings of wage and salary workers) and 1973, the real median weekly earnings of 16- to 24-year-olds rose by approx i mately 8 percent. Since 1973, however, the ea rnings of young adults have fallen almost continuously. Between 1973 and 1979, the weekly earnings of young men working full time fell by 7 percent. Young men experienced a 19 percent decline in earnings (a real value of $72 per week) between 1979 and 1989. This decline cannot be attributed solely to business cycle contractions. About half of the 19 percent decline did take place during the recessionary period of 1979-1982. But between 1982 and 1989, a period of strong overall job growth, the weekly earnings of young men fell by another $33, or 9 percent. Earnings declined still more between 1989 and 1994, dropping yet another 9 percent. The result of all this decline? A young man under 25 years of age employed full time in 1994 earned 31 percent less per week than what his same-aged counterpart earned in 1973.

Egyptian Math Essay -- History Mathematics Research Papers

Egyptian Math   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The use of organized mathematics in Egypt has been dated back to the third millennium BC. Egyptian mathematics was dominated by arithmetic, with an emphasis on measurement and calculation in geometry. With their vast knowledge of geometry, they were able to correctly calculate the areas of triangles, rectangles, and trapezoids and the volumes of figures such as bricks, cylinders, and pyramids. They were also able to build the Great Pyramid with extreme accuracy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Early surveyors found that the maximum error in fixing the length of the sides was only 0.63 of an inch, or less than 1/14000 of the total length. They also found that the error of the angles at the corners to be only 12", or about 1/27000 of a right angle (Smith 43).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Three theories from mathematics were found to have been used in building the Great Pyramid. The first theory states that four equilateral triangles were placed together to build the pyramidal surface. The second theory states that the ratio of one of the sides to half of the height is the approximate value of P, or that the ratio of the perimeter to the height is 2P. It has been discovered that early pyramid builders may have conceived the idea that P equaled about 3.14. The third theory states that the angle of elevation of the passage leading to the principal chamber determines the latitude of the pyramid, about 30o N, or that the passage itself points to what was then known as the pole star (Smith 44). Ancient Egyptian mathematics was based on two very elementary concepts. The first concept was that the Egyptians had a thorough knowledge of the twice-times table. The second concept was that they had the ability to find two-thirds of any number (Gillings 3). This number could be either integral or fractional. The Egyptians used the fraction 2/3 used with sums of unit fractions (1/n) to express all other fractions. Using this system, they were able to solve all problems of arithmetic that involved fractions, as well as some elementary problems in algebra (Berggren).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The science of mathematics was further advanced in Egypt in the fourth millennium BC than it was anywhere else in the world at this time. The Egyptian calendar was introduced about 4241 BC. Their year consisted of 12 months of 30 days each with 5 festival days at the end of the year. These festival days were dedicated t... ...alking about. If they found some exact method on how to do something, they never asked why it worked. They never sought to establish its universal truth by an argument that would show clearly and logically their thought processes. Instead, what they did was explain and define in an ordered sequence the steps necessary to do it again, and at the conclusion they added a verification or proof that the steps outlined did lead to a correct solution of the problem (Gillings 232-234). Maybe this is why the Egyptians were able to discover so many mathematical formulas. They never argued why something worked, they just believed it did. Works Cited: Berggren, J. Lennart. "Mathematics." Computer Software. Microsoft, Encarta 97 Encyclopedia. 1993-1996. CD- ROM. Dauben, Joseph Warren and Berggren, J. Lennart. "Algebra." Computer Software. Microsoft, Encarta 97 Encyclopedia. 1993-1996. CD- ROM. Gillings, Richard J. Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1972. Smith, D. E. History of Mathematics. Vol. 1. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1951. Weigel Jr., James. Cliff Notes on Mythology. Lincoln, Nebraska: Cliffs Notes, Inc., 1991

A question arises as to how governments

Employment is important for every individual. Employment is a source of income whether it is a private job or a government job. Depending on education, experience and caliber, individuals are offered jobs in specific cadres. Every job carries certain responsibilities whether it is a labor job, clerical job or a senior management job.There are certain management principles that are required to be practiced   for every employee at every level of job functioning. Government and businesses cannot function without people and in fact efficient employees are the greatest asset for organizations to grow towards profit and development. A question arises as to how governments have a role to play in private sector.The answer to this question is, in order to bring transparency in private sector businesses, there are certain legal enactments i.e. Employment relations Act 2004, Companies Act, Corporate Insolvency Law and many other legal rules for every purpose of public or private sector.   T hese enactments contain rules and regulations which can be referred whenever there is a requirement for fulfilling a provision.For instance Employment Relations Act 2004 states about employee and employer relations and how these have to be maintained which is required to be followed by both private sector and public sector, which reduces a number of conflicts and disputes that could occur without these legal rules.The relation of employee and employer is slightly a difficult task to manage with, and at one point of time, appears much easier depending on the situation.   However, every employee and employer have to be careful with the jobs being held with in respective organizations.There are many human resource management books which detail and discuss about employee and employer relations within office environment as well with office related aspects of management. Management of relation involves both personal manners as well treating others with respect.In management, there are a lso barriers of culture, origin of a person and much in respect of working environment. Especially in industrial sector, where there are quite a number of workers and who carry grievances or demands in paying high salaries, asking for more number of leisure hours or bonus payments etc., The skill and efficiency of management is evident in handling trade unions of industries.Trade unions are very tough to deal with and when the demands of union are not met with, closure of factories, stopping production or working on strike, or slow production and such other activities are undertaken. Therefore, management of industries have to be extremely careful with industrial workers.Governments in order to assist industries have enacted Employment Relations Act 2004. This Act specially deals with labor laws and trade union rights.  Ã‚   UK government also introduced Employment Bill 2007 – 2008 which covers all aspects of employment law. This would further improve the effectiveness of e mployment law which would benefit employers, trade unions, individuals and public sector.   It also protects workers and encourages law-abiding businesses.Dispute resolutions is one area which is always required in workplaces.   In this regard, the Bill details about statutory procedures and related provisions about dismissal cases.   Apart from the above, the Bill clarifies about National Minimum Wage and which imposes penalties on non-compliance methods in respects of payment of salaries, calculation of arrears and also strengthens employment agencies.

Antagonist Analysis of The Great Gatsby Essay

Tom Buchanan, the antagonist in the book, The Great Gastby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald is the darker side of the main character, Jay Gatsby. Where as Gatsby is an agreeable, attentive gentleman, Tom is the abrasive, physically powerful, and careless man who is concerned about one thing†¦himself. Tom is introduced as an arrogant and abusive husband to his wife Daisy Buchanan, who states, â€Å"That’s what I get for marrying a brute of a man, a great, big, hulking physical specimen of a —-,â€Å" as she tries to deal with his selfish and emotionally abusive ways (F. Scott Fitzgerald 12). The Great Gatsby explores the dynamics of relationships between the love (or lack thereof) between man and woman. Fitzgerald portrays antagonist Tom as self-centered human being, not only through the emotional abuse and negligence of his wife, but likewise through the sexual encounters and philanders of various women. One of Tom’s lovers, Myrtle Wilson, is so engrossed and enchanted by Buchanan that she is willing to risk her own marriage and is no longer attentive as some of her actions include â€Å"walking through her husband as if he were a ghost, shook hands with Tom, looking at him flush in the eye† (Fitzgerald 26). Unlike Tom, whose life revolves around no one other than himself, Gatsby’s life centers on finding the long lost love of his life, Daisy, and engulfing her with the true endearment of love between a man and woman. His one desire to fulfill his life with true love is interrupted twice by Tom Buchanan. Having loved Daisy as a young teenage boy and loosing her to life’s circumstances, Gatsby is determined to continue his search in hopes of locating this special woman who can never be replaced by no other beautiful face or body. Gatsby’s adoration and respect for Daisy drives him to cast all his possessions and even his life into securing her love and saving her name, as he did after the accident shifting blame from her to him, â€Å"but of course I’ll say I was† [driving the car that hit and killed Myrtle] (143). Tom and Gatsby are black and white images of one another. Tom, the darker character, is a cold heartless man who moves people around like pegs on a game board. He continually rolls the dice to calculate his next moves giving no thought to the human lives he has at stake. After the death of Myrtle, Tom shows his lack of interest for the welfare of the woman he has been having an affair with and uses an opportunity to shift conflict between George, Myrtle’s husband, and Gatsby, â€Å"Wilson’ll have a little business at last† (137). Unlike Tom, Gatsby’s bright image of love, concern, and devotion carries throughout the story. Gatsby holds onto love until the dire end, electing to protect Daisy from the wreck and the reckless relationship with her husband Tom, â€Å"I’m just going to wait here and see if he tries to bother her about that unpleasantness this afternoon (144). Tom is the perfect character to represent the antagonist in, The Great Gatsby. His selfish acts toward each character in the story shows his lack of respect for human relationships and his indulgence for self.

Cap and Trade Policy Paper Essay

Introduction: The issue of carbon emissions is an important one not only from an environmental perspective but also an economic one. While reducing carbon emissions is an important one for the health of human beings as well as that of the environment, the larger question is what type of policy strategy is best for both reducing such emissions which might have an impact on efforts to mitigate the effects of pollution on climate change. While ther are options to consider which does not rely on economics– technological or output standards achieved by command and control regulations–they are often fraught with political resistance by industry because they do not allow industry to make any choices or play a role in solving the problem of excessive emissions and the burden that these emissions place on others. Instead of such draconian measures based on fiat, the preferred options rely on economic tools instead to provide incentives to industry to police itself by either incenting investment in emission-reducing and/or energy saving technologies or to reduce production in line with the total/social-costs rather than just the private/ producer-costs of production. Two such economic policies to consider in this regard are emission taxes and cap-and-trade policies. Overview of Policy Problem: Carbon emissions reduction Consider a company that faces an increasing marginal pollution abatement cost curve as in the Figure 1. Left unregulated it will choose not to reduce its carbon emissions (a.k.a abate carbon emissions) and avert facing the costs of abatement represented by the area underneath the marginal abatement cost curve represented by area (B + C + D) in the diagram below. Figure 1: Marginal Costs and Marginal Benefits of Reducing Carbon Emissions [pic] Source: Econ 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap-and-Trade, 2012, n.pag. Suppose that policy analysts have determined that the economically efficient level of pollution abatement occurs at the point where marginal benefits of abatement equal the marginal cost costs of abatement as is suggested in economic theory. The resulting level of carbon emissions is e* (reduction in emissions is measured from the far right in the diagram above to the pointe*). The question is what policy to follow to achieve e*: either some type of fiat policy involving either some type of output restriction or requiring use of a particular pollution-control technology or some type of policy that involves financial incentives to reduce emissions. This paper hypothesizes that policy options involving economic incentives are preferable to those options that involve regulatory fiat. Specification of Economic Policy Models: 1) A Carbon Emissions Tax: One policy instrument that can be used to achieve this level of abatement is to set a tax where marginal benefit equals marginal cost — represented by the horizontal â€Å"tax† line in the Figure 2 below. Under such a scheme, the polluter will find that it is cheaper to reduce carbon emissions so long as the marginal cost is lower than the tax. Since the tax bill (A + B) is great than the marginal abatement cost bill (B) to the left of the point e*, the firm will choose to reduce emissions up to the level of C with the remaining emissions level indicated in figure 2 measured from the right in the diagram. To the right of e*, the marginal abatement costs, represented by areas C + D, are greater than the tax bill (area D) so the firm will choose to pay the tax and continue to emit pollutants beyond e*. Figure 2: The Carbon Emissions Tax [pic] Source: Econ 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap-and-Trade, 2012, n.pag. So long as the marginal costs and benefits of abatement can be known with certainty, an emissions tax can be set at the point of intersection of these two measures resulting in an efficient level of pollution emissions at e* with total abatement costs (including taxes paid) to the polluter of area B+D and providing the government with revenues represented by D (Econ. 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap and Trade, n. pag.). It is when these marginal costs and marginal benefits are either not measurable in their entirety or when there is uncertainty about the figures obtained that leads to added questions as to whether this would be the best policy to follow. 2) A Cap Policy: An alternative policy to an emissions tax to achieve reductions in emissions through the tools of economics is to set a cap at the point where marginal social benefit equals marginal social cost of reducing emissions/abatement — represented by the vertical â€Å"cap† line in Figure 3 below. The polluting firm must reduce its carbon emissions to e* where the marginal social cost of reducing emissions equals the marginal social benefit of the products produced by the polluter. Such a policy–if the social costs and social benefits can be measured accurately—results in an efficient level of emissions produced/reduced at e* with an abatement cost borne by Figure 3: Cap Policy for Each Firm [pic] Source: Econ 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap-and-Trade, 2012, n.pag. the polluter equivalent to area B (Econ. 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap and Trade, n. pag.). The issue is whether total social costs can be measured and measured accurately in order to set such a policy at the correct or efficient level of emissions for each firm. Normally such policies do not result in efficiency even though an efficient level of overall emissions can be attained since it does not account for different costs of abatement in different firms. That is, a level of emissions can be attained that is equivalent to that achieved under an economically efficient policy but the level is not achieved at the lowest overall cost. One way of obtaining individual caps is for the government to auction off emission permits that total the pre-set amount of emissions that it feels is optimal. Firms with higher costs of reducing emissions will bid higher than firms with lower cost structures. Again, the only problem is determining what the total amount of emissions should be reflecting all social costs and benefits of reducing carbon emissions. 3) A Cap-and-Trade Policy An added twist on the cap policy allows firms to trade emission allotments between themselves based on the buyer of allotment bargaining with the seller over the proper price to pay for the extra allotment. A two-panel diagram is needed to better understand the logic of trading emission allotments. Figure 4 illustrates the marginal cost of reducing emissions of two firms. One firm is run on older technology with high abatement costs that goes from right to left with zero costs represented at the lower right-hand corner of the diagram. The other firm has newer technology in its plant with lower abatement costs that goes left to right with zero costs represented at the lower left-hand corner of the diagram. The width of the horizontal axis is the reduction in emissions that must be achieved overall to an efficient level. The intersection of the two marginal cost curves is where economic efficiency is achieved. That is, the value achieved Figure 4. Cap-and-Trade Between Firms Policy Source: Econ 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap-and-Trade, 2012, n.pag. from the last dollar expended on abatement must be the same across all firms in the market. This is known as the equimarginal principle (Boyes and Melvin, 2011,122). The total cost of attaining the efficient abatement/emissions level is equal to the area C + G + K. At the efficient level of emissions, e*, the low cost (of reducing emissions) firm should reduce more emissions than the high cost (or reducing emissions) firm. Such a policy can be implemented by issuing carbon permits to different firms and allowing them to buy and sell their permits in the open market. Normally, equal amounts of permits are issued to each firm since it is difficult to assess the true abatement cost a priori. In the end, the marketplace will help determine the differences in cost structure depending on how high a firm is willing to bid for an extra permit or two (Econ. 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap and Trade, n. pag.). As with the individual firm cap policy, the cap-and-trade policy is predicated on the government being able to determine the optimal level of total emissions desired reflecting social costs and benefits of reducing carbon emissions. Combining the different economic policy options together, it is obvious that it is possible to achieve the same level of reduction in emissions by setting a tax at the same level as where the marginal costs of reducing emissions is the same between firms which is at the level represented by the horizontal line in Figure 4 above. As above, the polluting firms will notice that it is cheaper to abate carbon emissions as long as the marginal abatement cost is lower than the tax. The firms with the higher cost structure will reduce emissions to e* when measured from right to left and incur abatement costs equivalent to area K and pay taxes equivalent to area B+C+F+G. The firms with the lower cost structure will reduce emissions to e* when measured from left to right and incur abatement costs of C+G and pay taxes equivalent to areas J + K in Figure 4. Setting a cap on each individual firm will produce the same level of reduction in emissions, but given that it is difficult, if not impossible, to individualized caps based on different cost structures of abatement, an efficient outcome is difficult to achieve under such a policy even though emissions are reduced to the same overall level. Regarding the market failure due to the negative carbon externality, both a carbon tax and carbon cap-and-trade will achieve the same level of increased efficiency–assuming that measurements of costs and benefits can be measured accurately– by reducing emissions to the optimal level at minimum cost. The real difference in these policies is due to differences in the distribution of costs. In the carbon tax policy, the government receives added revenues while in the cap and cap-and-trade policies when permits are simply handed out to firms, the firm has no additional outlays other than the cost of abatement to stay within the cap or to purchase additional allotment from other firms. If the permits are initially auctioned off by the government, the additional revenues to the government should be nearly the same as with a tax scheme if marginal social costs and benefits have been measured accurately. However, the economics-based policies are preferable to policies based on fiat where specific technologies (e.g., smoke-stack scrubbers) or a uniform cap on emission outputs across all firms since these other policies fail to take into account social costs and benefits. With regard to the economics-based policies, the following added impacts may also occur. First, in addition to static efficiency–efficiency occurring within a single period of time–there may also be dynamic efficiency within these policy schemes whereby firms have an incentive to adopt new technology over time to reduce their marginal costs of reducing carbon emissions (Econ. 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap and Trade, n. pag.). Secondly, carbon emission taxes and/or auctioning permits will generate additional government revenue that might be used to offset various distortionary taxes on labour and/or capital (Econ. 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap and Trade, n. pag.). Evidence and Analysis: There are various problems associated with the design of emissions tax regimes warranting discussion. First, if such a tax were placed on individuals rather than firms without any offsetting changes in other taxes or government transfers, a carbon tax might be regressive suggesting that the highest tax burden would be placed on the poor (Poterba, 1991, 11). This is mostly applicable to gasoline taxes where a flat emissions tax would make up a higher percentage of the income of poorer over wealthier taxpayers; thus, an issue of equity arises here. Likewise, firms with higher profit margins would shoulder less burden from the tax than firms with lower profit margins given a similar costs of pollution abatement. Poterba (1991) suggests that this regressiveness could be offset by changes in either the direct tax system or in government transfers. Second, as the population grows and production totals continue to increase to meet the demands of this growing population, emission taxes will need to rise to keep emissions at a particular level; this may lead to a set of distortions in terms of domestic vs. foreign production whereby firms can transfer production to other jurisdictions that do not have such taxes in place. Thus, international trade leads to an opportunity to get around the tax scheme and the higher the taxes instituted, the higher the incentive to engage in such behaviour. Thus, if emission taxes differ significantly between two neighbouring jurisdiction–for example, the State of New York and Connecticut or even New York and one of its neighbouring Canadian provinces–there is an inherent incentive to move production outside of the jurisdiction with the highest taxes and import products from elsewhere. Third, a central issue regarding the design of carbon emissions taxes to harmonize such polities with other fiscal instruments designed to mitigate the effects of climate change. For instance, it is important to ensure that taxes on chlorofluorocarbons and emissions from fossil fuels are comparable to avoid distortions in consumption that may lead to a worse outcome for the environment than in the absence of such policies (Poterba, 1991, 27). Bosquet (2000) conducted a review of the evidence regarding the impact of carbon emissions taxes on the environment and the economy. She claims that environmental taxes involve the shifting of tax burden from employment, income, and investment to resource depletion and waste. She asks the general question of whether such tax reform can produce a double benefit by helping the environment and the economy simultaneously. Based on her reviews of the literature and available evidence, she concludes that when emissions taxes are instituted, they are generally associated with reductions in payroll taxes, and–if wage-price inï ¬â€šation is prevented–they often result in signiï ¬ cant reductions in pollution and small gains in employment (Bosquet, 2000, 19). Also associated with the implementation of such environmental taxes are also marginal changes–gains or losses– in production in the short to medium term, while investments decease marginally and prices increase. However, she cautions that the results of such environmental taxes in the long-term are less certain (Bosquet, 2000, 29). With regard to cap and cap-and-trade policies, the evidence is also available regarding the effectiveness and consequences of such policies. Stavins (2008) describes a graduated cap-and-trade scheme that involves initially just Carbon gasses with 50% of permits issued to polluters in the market free of charge and other half auctioned off. Over 25 years, the percentage auctioned off annually will gradually increase to 100% and other greenhouse gas emissions will be included over this time span. The idea is to implement a gradual iterative policy with a slow trajectory of emission reductions. As time goes on, other emissions are included in this scheme and the system provides for harmonizing this scheme over time with effective cap-and-trade systems and other emission credit reduction programs in other jurisdictions. This harmonization effectively addresses the issue raised with emission tax policies that are unilaterally established in one jurisdiction without consideration for the po licies in neighbouring jurisdictions. If there is an effective way to dovetail policies in different jurisdiction, then this would level the playing field between domestic and imported products. Regarding actual cap-and-trade policies already in place, Colby (2000) analyzes a cap-and-trade policy for limiting Sulfur Dioxide emissions. The changes stemmed from the Clean Air Act of 1990 which allowed for a nationwide cap-and-trade policy for industrial firms emitting sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. Marginal costs of reducing emissions fell substantially duringn the 1990s due to reduced costs of installing scrubbers, reduced costs of flue gas desulfurization, and falling costs for low sulfur coal all due, to a large extent, to an active program of trading/buying allowances between firms that emerged after a few years of experience after the program was initiated. As Colby (2000) states, â€Å"The allowance trading market enhanced competition among the different methods that firms use to control emissions, adding impetus to cost reductions† (Colby, 2000, 642). Low allowance prices and falling marginal costs associated with reducing emissions produced earlier-than-predicted cutbacks in sulfur dioxide emissions. Allowance prices rose from lows of $80-90/unit in 1996 to about $215/unit in mid-1999 spurring further conservation efforts. Colby (2002) does mention that design and implementation of cap-and-trade schemes involves some important policy tradeoffs: equity among the players, balancing use levels with resource conditions, facilitating transactions between firms wishing to trade allowances, accurate accounting for externality costs, assuring adequate monitoring of emissions levels, and documenting welfare gains due to the policy. She says that efficient trading mechanisms can be more easily implemented when there is a strong political or legal mandate to cap resource use and trading allowances are sensed by all parties involved to be a way to ease adjustment to limits on emissions (Colby, 2000, 638). In choosing between the various policies, it is inevitably important to sense the level of uncertainty over measuring the items of interest. With regard to emissions taxes, it is important to have fairly accurate estimates of marginal social costs and benefits and with regard to cap-and-trade schemes, there needs to also be a fairly accurate means of estimating the optimal level of emissions given all the costs and benefits involved in reducing emissions. If it becomes difficult to measure these items accurately, then the expected deadweight loss and associate probabilities of various miscalculations needs to be assessed and compared across the different strategies to determine the policy that produces the smallest expected deadweight loss which is key from an economic perspective. Since policies based on fiat, such as technology mandates and non-economically based output standards, are not set with regard to these types of measures, it is likely that the deadweight economic loss associated with these policies will be greater than for either emissions taxes or better yet, cap-and-trade policies. Conclusion: The evidence suggests that economics-based emissions policies are preferred over policies based on fiat. Moreover, the strongest evidence for promoting investment in pollution control equipment and reducing emissions that mitigate the effects of climate change appear to involve cap-and-trade policies. Partially, this might be due to the flexible design of such policies which—through the auctioning and/or trading of allowances—account for changing market conditions. This policy, even more so than emission taxes, forces the industry to face current market conditions through the use of auctions and trading for emission allowances. As a result, the parties are forced to make choices based on strong economic criteria to obtain efficiencies over time. Works cited: Bosquet B. 2000. Environmental Tax Reform: Does It Work? A Survey of The Empirical Evidence. Ecological Economics. 34, 19-32, Colby G. 2000. Cap-and-Trade Policy Challenges: A Tale of Three Markets. Land Economics, 76, 638-658. Econ. 101: Carbon Tax vs. Cap-and-Trade. 2012. Website. Retrieved on June 5th, 2012 from http://www.env-econ.net/carbon_tax_vs_capandtrade.html Melvin W. Boyes M. 2011. Microeconomics. 9th ed. Marion, OH: South-Western, Cengage Learning, Poterba JM. 1991. Tax Policy to Combat Global Warming: On Designing a Carbon Tax. NBER Working Paper. MIT-CEPR 91-003WP. Retrieved on June 7th, 2012 from http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/50159/28596145.pdf?sequ Stavins RN. 2008. Addressing Climate Change with a Comprehensive U.S. Cap-and-Trade System. Nota Di Lavoro 67.2008 Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei. Retrieved on June 7th, 2012 from http://www.feem.it/userfiles/attach/Publication/NDL2008/NDL2008-067.pdf